Electrical and Electronics Measurements

Submitted by tushar pramanick on Sun, 07/27/2014 - 13:52

CONTENTS

1.     Measurements and Measurement Systems
  1.1   Measurements
  1.2   Significance of Measurements
  1.3   Method of Measurements
    1.3.1 Direct Methods
    1.3.2 Indirect Methods
  1.4   Instruments and measurement Systems
  1.5   Mechanical, Electrical and Electronic Instruments
    1.5.1 Mechanical Instruments
    1.5.2 Electrical Instruments
    1.5.3 Electronic Instruments
  1.6   Classification of Instruments
    1.6.1 Absolute Instruments
    1.6.2 Secondary Instruments
  1.7   Deflection and Null Type Instruments
    1.7.1 Deflection Type
    1.7.2 Null Type
    1.7.3 Comparison of Deflection and Null Type Instruments
  1.8   Analog and Digital Modes of Operation
  1.9   Functions of Instruments and Measurement Systems
  1.10   Applications of Measurement Systems
    1.10.1 Monitoring of Processes and Operations
    1.10.2 Control of Processes and Operations
    1.10.2 Experimental Engineering Analysis
  1.11   Types of Instrumentation Systems
    1.11.1 Intelligent Instrumentation Systems
    1.11.2 Dump Instrumentation Systems
  1.12   Information and Signal Processing
  1.13   Elements of a Generalized Measurement System
    1.13.1 Primary Sensing Element
    1.13.2 Variable Conversion Element
    1.13.3 Variable Manipulation Element
    1.13.4 Data Presentation Element
  1.14   Input-Output Configurations of Measuring lnstruments and Measurement Systems
    1.14.1 Desired Inputs
    1.14.2 Interfering Inputs
    1.14.3 Modifying Inputs
  1.15   Methods of Correction for Interfering and Modifying Inputs.
    1.15.1 Method of inherent insensitivity
    1.15.2 Method of high gain Feedback.
    1.15.3 Method of calculated output corrections
    1.15.4 Method of Signal Filtering
    1.15.5 Method of Opposing Inputs
       
2.     Characteristics of Instruments and Measurement Systems
  2.1   Measurement System Performance
    2.1.1 Static characteristics
    2.1.2 Dynamic characteristics
  2.2   Static Calibration
  2.3   Static Characteristics
  2.4   Errors in Measurements
  2.5   True Value
  2.6   Static Error
  2.7   Static Correction
  2.8   Scale Range and Scale Span
  2.9   Error Calibration Curve
  2.10   Reproducibility and Drifit Reproducibility
    2.10.1 Zero Drift
    2.10.2 Span Drift or Sensitivity
    2.10.3 Zonal Drift
  2.11   Repeatability
  2.12   Noise
    2.12.1 Signal to Noise Ratio (S/N)
    2.12.2 Sources of Noise
    2.12.3 Johonson Noise
    2.12.4 Power Spectrum Density
    2.12.5 Noise Factor and Noise Figure
  2.13   Accuracy and Precision
    2.13.1 Point Accuracy
    2.13.2 Accuracy as "Percentage of Scale Range"
    2.13.3 Accuracy as "Percentage of True Value"
    2.13.4 Precision
  2.14   Indications of Precision
    2.14.1 Conformity
    2.14.2 Significant Figures
  2.15   Range of Doubt or Possible Errors and Doubtful Figures
  2.16   Static Sensitivity
  2.17   Linearity
  2.18   Hysteresis
  2.19   Threshold
  2.20   Dead Time
  2.21   Dead Zone
  2.22   Resolution or discrimination
  2.23   Loading Effects
  2.24   Input and Output Impedances
    2.24.1 Input impedance
    2.24.2 Input admittance
    2.24.3 Output impedance
    2.24.4 Output admittance
  2.25   Loading Effects due to Shunt connected Instruments
  2.26   Loading Effects due to Series connected Instruments
  2.27   Generalised Impedance and Stiffness Concepts
    2.27.1 Through Variables
    2.27.2 Across Variables
  2.28   Static Stiffness and Static Compliance
  2.29   Impedance Matching and Maximum Power Transfer
       
3.     Errors in Measurements and Their Statistical Analysis
  3,1   Limiting Errors (Guarantee Errors)
  3.2   Relative (Fractional) Limiting Error
  3.3   Combination of Quantities with Limiting Errors
    3.3.1 Sum of two quantities
    3.3.2 Difference of two quantities
    3.3.3 Sum of Difference of more than two quantities
    3.3.4 Product of two Components
    3.3.5 Quoient
    3.3.6 Product or quotient of more than two quantities
    3.3.7 Power of a factor
    3.3.8 Composite Factors
  3.4   Known Errors
  3.5   Types of Errors
    3.5.1 Gross Errors
    3.5.2 Systematic Errors
    3.5.3 Instrumental Errors
    3.5.4 Environmental Errors
    3.5.5 Observational Errors
    3.5.6 Random (Residual) Errors
  3.6   Central Value
  3.7   Statistical Treatment of Data
    3.7.1 Multisample Test
    3.7.2 Single Sample Test
    3.7.3 Histogram
    3.7.4 Arithmetic Mean
    3.7.5 Measure of Dispersion from the Mean
    3.7.6 Range
    3.7.7 Deviation
    3.7.8 Average Deviation
    3.7.9 Standard Deviation (S.D.)
    3.7.10 Variance
    3.7.11 Normal or Gaussian Curve of Errors
    3.7.12 Precision Index
    3.7.13 Probable Error
    3.7.14 Average Deviation for the Normal Curve
    3.7.15 Standard Deviation for the Normal Curve
    3.7.16 Probable Error of a Finite Number of Readings
    3.7.17 Standard Deviation of Mean
    3.7.18 Standard Deviation of standard Deviation
  3.8   Probability Tables
  3.9   Specifying Odds
  3.10   Specifying Measurement Data
  3.11   Confidence Interval and Confidence level
  3.12   Rejection of Data
    3.12.1 Chauvenet's Criterion
    3.12.2 Rejection of Data based upon Confidence Intervals
    3.12.3 Rejection of Data based upon ± 3σ Limits
  3.13   Method of Least Squares
  3.14   Variance and Standard Deviations of Combination of Components
    3.14.1 Probable Error of Combination of Components
  3.15   Uncertainty Analysis and Treatment of Single Sample Data
    3.15.1 Propagation of Uncertainties
       
4.      Dynamic Characteristics of Instruments and Measurement Systems
  4.1   Dynamic Response
    4.1.1 Speed of Response
    4.1.2 Measuring Lag
    4.1.3 Fidelity
    4.1.4 Dynamic error
  4.2   Dynamic Analysis of Measurement Systems
    4.2.1 Time Domain Analysis
    4.2.2 Frequency Domain Analysis
  4.3   Mathematical Models of Measurement Systems
  4.4   Linear and Non-Linear System
    4.4.1 Linear Time Invariant System
    4.4.2 Linear Time variant System
  4.5   Analysis of Linear Systems
  4.6   Linear Approximaion of Non linear Systems
  4.7   Electric Networks
  4.8   Mechanical Systems
    4.8.1 Mechanical Translational Systems
    4.8.2 Mechanical Rotational Systems
  4.9   Force-voltage and Force-current Analogies
  4.10   Thermal Systems
  4.11   Liquid Level Systems
  4.12   Pneumatic Systems
  4.13   Transfer function
  4.14   Block Diagram Representation
  4.15   Impulse Response of a Linear System
  4.16   Sinusoidal Transfer Function
  4.17   Time Domain Response
  4.18   Zero Order Systems
  4.19   First Order Electrical Systems
  4.20   First Order Non-Electrical Systems
    4.20.1 Thermal System
    4.20.2 Liquid Level systems
  4.21   Differential Equation for a General First Order System
  4.22   Response of a First Order System to a Unit Step Input
  4.23   Modelling of a Thermometer
  4.24   Ramp Response of a First Order Systems
  4.25   Impulse Response of a First Order Systems
  4.26   Response of Second Order Systems
    4.26.1 Overdamped Systems
    4.26.2 Critically damped Systems
    4.26.3 Underdamped Systems
  4.27   Step Response of a Second Order System
    4.27.1 Overdamped Systems
    4.27.2 Critically damped Systems
    4.27.3 Underdamped Systems
  4.28   Time Domain Specifications
  4.29   Ramp Response of a Second Order Systems
  4.30   Impulse Response of a Second Order Systems
  4.31   Frequency Domain Analysis
  4.32   Frequency Response of a First Order Systems
  4.33   Frequency Response of a Second Order Systems
    4.33.1 Resonant Frequency
    4.33.2 Resonant Peak
    4.33.3 Bandwidth
    4.33.4 Frequency Response Curves
  4.34   Dead-Time Elements
  4.35   Correlationship between Time and Frequency Response of Second Order Systems
       
5.     Units, Systems, Dimentions and Standards
  5.1   Introduction
  5.2   Unit
    5.2.1 Absolute Units
    5.2.2 Fundamental and Derived Units
  5.3   Dimensions
  5.4   Dimensions of Mechanical Quantities
  5.5   CGS System of Units
    5.5.1 Electromagnetic Units (e.m. units)
    5.5.2 Electrostatic Units (e.s. units)
  5.6   Practical Units
  5.7   Dimensional Equations
    5.7.1 Dimensions in Electrostatic System
    5.7.2 Dimensions in Electromagnetic System
  5.8   Relationship between Electrostatic and Electromagnetic Systems of Units
  5.9   M.K.S. System
  5.10   Rationalised M.K.S.A. System
  5.11   SI Units
    5.11.1 Base Units of SI
  5.12   Supplementary Units
  5.13   Multiplying Prefixes of Units
  5.14   Determination of Absolute Units
  5.15   Absolute Measurement of Current
    5.15.1 Rayleigh's Current Balance
  5.16   Absolute Measurement of Resistance
    5.16.1 Lorenz Method
  5.17   Standards and Their Classification
    5.17.1 International Standards
    5.17.2 Primary Standards
    5.17.3 Secondary Standards
    5.17.4 Working Standards
  5.18   Standards for Mass and Length
  5.19   Atomic Frequency and Time Standards
    5.19.1 Caesium Beam Standard
    5.19.2 Hydrogen Maser Standard
    5.19.3 Rebidium Vapour Standard
    5.19.4 Quartz Crystal Standard
  5.18   Temperature Standards
  5.19   Luminous Intensity Standards
  5.20   Electrical Standards
  5.21   Emf Standards
    5.21.1 Primary Standard of Emf
    5.21.2 Secondary Standard of Emf
    5.21.3 Laboratory Standards of Emf
    5.21.4 Josephon-Effect Standard
  5.22   Resistance Standards
  5.23   Current Standards
  5.24   Inductance Standards
  5.25   Capacitance Standards
       
6.     Circuit Components ( Resistors, Inductors and Capacitors and their Residues)
  61   Residues
  6.2   Resistors
    6.2.1 Materials used for Resistors
    6.2.2 Spools (Formers) for Resistance Coils
    6.2.3 Resistance Wires
    6.2.4 Resistance Standards
    6.2.5 Low Resistance Standards
    6.2.6 Steel Metal Resistors
    6.2.7 Frequency Errors in Resistors
    6.2.8 Methods of Reducing Residual Inductance and Capacitance in Resistors
    6.2.9 Shielded Resistors
  6.3   Standards for Inductance
    6.3.1 Formers for Inductance Coils
    6.3.2 Coils of Inductance Coils
    6.3.3 Standards of Mutual Inductance
    6.3.4 Variable Inductance
    6.3.5 Inductors for High Frequency Work
    6.3.6 Inductors for Low Frequency Work
    6.3.7 Frequency Errors in Inductors
  6.4   Loss Angle and Power Factor of Capacitors
  6.5   Capacitance Standards
    6.5.1 Vacuum and Gas-filled Capacitors
    6.5.2 Solid Dielectric Capacitors
    6.5.3 Variable Capacitors
    6.5.4 Decade Capacitance Boxes
    6.5.5 Frequency Errors in Capacitors
       
7.      Analog Instruments
  7.1   Analog Instruments
  7.2   Classification of  Analog Instruments
    7.2.1 Indicating Instruments
    7.2.2 Recording Instruments
    7.2.3 Integrating Instruments
  7.3   Principles of Operation
    7.3.1 Magnetic Effect
    7.3.2 Thermal Effect
    7.3.3 Induction Effect
    7.3.4 Hall Effect
  7.4   Electromechanical Indicating Instruments
    7.4.1 Operating Forces
    7.4.2 Constructional Details
    7.4.3 Types of Supports
    7.4.4 Torque/Weight Ratio
    7.4.5 Control Systems
  7.5   Comparison between Spring and Gravity Control
  7.6   Damping Systems
    7.6.1 Air Friction Damping
    7.6.2 Fluid Friction Damping
    7.6.3 Eddy Current Damping
    7.6.4 Electromagnetic Damping
  7.7   Comparison of Methods of Damping
  7.8   Methods of Eddy Current Damping
    7.8.1 Eddy Current Damping Torque of Metal Former
    7.8.2 Damping Torque of a Metal Disc
  7.9   Permanent Magnets
  7.10   Pointers and Scales
  7.11   Symbols used for Analogue Instruments
    7.11.1 Nature of Measured Quantity and Number of Measuring Elements
    7.11.2 Safety
    7.11.3 Accuracy Class
    7.11.4 Principle of Operation
  7.12   Recording Instruments
  7.13   Integrating Instruments
       
8.     Galvanometers
  8.1   Introduction
  8.2   D'Arsonaval Galvanometer
  8.3   Construction of d'Arosnval Galvanometer
  8.4   Torque Equation
  8.5   Dynamic Behaviour of Galvanometers
    8.5.1 Equation of Motion
    8.5.2 Underdamped Motion of a Galvanometer
    8.5.3 Undamped Motion of a Galvanometer
    8.5.4 Critically Damped Motion of a Galvanometer
    8.5.5 Overdamped Motion of Galvenometer
  8.6   Response of Galvanometers
  8.7   Operational Constants
  8.8   Relative Damping
  8.9   Logarithmic Decrement
  8.10   Overshoot
  8.11   Non-dimensional Curves of a Galvanometer Motion
  8.12   Damping
    8.12.1 Mechanical Damping
    8.12.2 Electrical Damping
  8.13   Sensitivity
    8.13.1 Current Sensitivity
    8.13.2 Voltage Sensitivity
    8.13.3 Megohm Sensitivity
  8.14   Galvanometer Shunts
  8.15   Ayrton Universal Shunt
  8.16   Ballistic Galvanometer
    8.16.1 Construction of ballistic Galvanometers
    8.16.2 Theory of ballistic Galvanometer
    8.16.3 Calibration of a Balilistic Galvanometer
  8.17   Flux Meter
    8.17.1 Construction of flux meter
    8.17.2 Operation of flux meter
    8.17.3 Theory of Flux meter
    8.17.4 Use of Shunt with Flux meter
    8.17.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of flux meter
  8.18   Vibration Galvanometers
    8.18.1 Construction of Vibration Galvanometers
    8.18.2 Theory
  8.19   Duddell's Ocillograph
    8.19.1 Theory of Duddell's Oscillograph
       
9.     Analog Ammeters, Voltmeteres and Ohmmeters
  9.1   Introduction
  9.2   Types of Instruments
  9.3   Errors in Ammeters and Voltmeters
  9.4   Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instruments (PMMC)
    9.4.1 Construction of PMMC Instruments
    9.4.2 Torque Equation
    9.4.3 Ammeter Shunts
    9.4.4 Effect of Temperature Changes in ammeters
    9.4.5 Multi-range Ammeters
    9.4.6 Voltmeter Multipliers
    9.4.7 Effect of Temperature Changes in Voltmeters
    9.4.8 Multi-range d.c. Voltmeters
    9.4.9 Sensitivity of PMMC Voltmeters and their Loding Effects
    9.4.10 Errors in PMMC Instruments
    9.4.11 Advantages and Disadvantages of PMMC Instruments
  9.5   Ohmmeters
    9.5.1 Series-type Ohmmeter
    9.5.2 Shunt type Ohmmeters
  9.6   Multimeter or Volt-Ohm-Milli-ammeter (V.O.M.)
  9.7   Ratio meter
    9.7.1 Ratio meter Ohmeters
  9.8   Megger
  9.9   Moving Iron Instruments
    9.9.1 General Torque Equation of Moving Iron Instruments
    9.9.2 Classification of Moving Iron Instruments
    9.9.3 Shape of Scale of Moving Iron Instruments
    9.9.4 Shunt for Moving Iron Instruments
    9.9.5 Multipliers for Moving Iron Instruments
    9.9.6 Comparison between Attraction and Repulsion Types of Instruments
    9.9.7 Errors in Moving Iron Instruments
    9.9.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of Moving Iron Instruments
  9.10   Electrodynamometer ( Electrodynamic) Type Instruments
    9.10.1 Operating principle of Electrodynamometer Type instruments
    9.10.2 Construction of Electrodynamometer Type instruments
    9.10.3 Torque equation of Electrodynamometer Type instruments
    9.10.4 Electrodynamometer Ammeters
    9.10.5 Electrodynamometer Voltmeters
    9.10.6 Errors in Electrodynamometer Instruments
    9.10.7 Shape of Scale Electrodynamometer Type instruments
    9.10.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of Electrodynamometer Type instruments
  9.11   Electrothermic Instruments
    9.11.1 Classification of Electrothermic Instruments.
  9.12   Hot Wire Instruments
  9.13   Thermocouple Instruments
    9.13.1 Principle of operation of Thermo-electric Instruments
    9.13.2 Construction of Thermo-electric Instruments
    9.13.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Thermo-electric Instruments
  9.14   Electrostatic Instruments
    9.14.1 Force and Torque Equations of Electrostatic Instruments
    9.14.2 Quadrant Electrometer
    9.14.3 Kelvin Multicellular Voltmeter
    9.14.4 Attraction Type Portable Electrostatic Instruments
    9.14.5 Attracted Disc Type Portable Kelvin Absolute Electrometer
    9.14.6 Extension of Range of Electrostatic Voltmeters
    9.14.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of electrostatic instruments
  9.15   Rectifier Type Instruments
    9.15.1 Rectifier Elements
    9.15.2 Characteristics of rectifier elements
    9.15.3 Half wave Rectifier Circuit
    9.15.4 Full wave rectifier circuit
    9.15.5 Sensitivity of Rectifier Type Instruments
    9.15.6 Extension of Range of Rectifier Instruments as Voltmeters
    9.15.7 Factors Affecting the Performance Rectifier Type Instruments
    9.15.8 Multimeters
    9.15.9 Simpson's Multimeter
    9.15.10 Rectifier Ammeters
    9.15.11 Advantages of Rectifier Instruments
    9.15.12 Loading Effects of Rectifier Instruments
  9.16   Summary and Classification of Alternating and Direct Current Meters
       
10.     Instrument Transformers
  10.1   Introduction
  10.2   Use of Instrument Transformers
  10.3   Ratios of Instrument Transformers
  10.4   Burden of a Instruments Transformer
  10.5   Current Transformers
    10.5.1 Relationships in a Current Transformers
    10.5.2 Errors in Current Transformers
    10.5.3 Characteristics of Current Transformers
    10.5.4 Causes of Errors in Current Transformers
    10.5.5 Reduction of Errors in Current Transformers
    10.5.6 Construction of Current Transformers
    10.5.7 Clamp on Ammeters
    10.5.8 Effect of Secondary Open Circuit
    10.5.9 Permanent Magnetization and Demagnetization of Cores of Current Transformers
  10.6   Potential Transformers
    10.6.1 Difference between C.T. and P.T.
    10.6.2 Relationship in Potential Transformers
    10.6.3 Reduction of Errors in Potential Transformer
    10.6.4 High Voltage Potential Transformers
    10.6.5 Protection of Potential Transformers
    10.6.6 Capacitive Potential Transformers
    10.6.7 Characteristics of Potential Transformers
  10.7   Testing of Instrument Transformers
  10.8   Testing of Current Transformers
  10.9   Testing of Potential Transformers
       
11.      Measurement of Power and Wattmeters
  11.1   Power in D.C. Circuits
  11.2   Power in A.C. circuits
  11.3   Electrodynamometer Wattmeters
    11.3.1 Construction of Electrodynamometer Wattmeters
    11.3.2 Theory of Electrodynamometer Wattmeters
    11.3.3 Shape of Scale of Electrodynamometer Wattmeters
    11.3.4 Error in Electrodynamometer Wattmeters
  11.4   Ferrodynamic Wattmeters.
  11.5   Lower Factor Wattmeters (Electrodynamometer type)
  11.6   Thermocouple Wattmeter (Thermal Watt Converter)
  11.7   Hall Effect Multiplier
  11.8   Measurement of Power Using Instrument Transformers
  11.9   Power In Poly-Phase Systems
  11.10   Measurement of Power in Three Phase Circuits
  11.11   Three Phase Wattmeters
  11.12   Measurement of Reactive Power
       
12.      Measurement of Energy and Industrial Metering
  12.1   Introduction
  12.2   General
  12.3   Motor Meters
  12.4   Braking
  12.5   Friction
  12.6   Energy Meters for A.C. Circuits
  12.7   Theory of Induction Type Meters
  12.8   Single Phase Induction Type Watt-hour Meters
      Construction
      Theory and Operation
      Lag Adjustment Devices
      Light Load or Friction Compensation
  12.9   Creep
      Over-Load Compensation, over Voltage Compensation
      Temperature Compensation
  12.10   Errors. Adjustments. Polyphase Energy Meters
  12.11   Two Element Energy Meter.
  12.12   Industrial Metering and Tariffs.
  12.13   Maximum Demand Indicators
  12.14   Average Demand Indicator.
  12.15   Measurement of VAh and VArh
  12.16   VArh Metering
  12.17   Measurement of VAh
  12.18   Testing of Energy Meters
  12.19   Types of Tests
  12.20   Loading, Meter Testing Circuits
       
13.     Measurement of Phase and Frequency
  13.1   Introduction
  13.2   Power Factor Meters
    I. Single Phase Electrodynamometer Power Factor Meter
    II. Three Phase Electrodynamometer Power Factor Meter
    III. Moving Iron Power Factor Meters
    IV. Advantages and Disadvantages of Moving Iron P.F. Meters
  13.3   Frequency Meters
    I. Mechanical Resonance Type Frequency Meter (Vibrating Reed Type)
    II. Electrical Reasonance Type Frequency Meters
    III. Weston Type Frequency Meter
    IV. Ratiometer Type Frequency Meter
    V. Saturable Core Frequency Meter
  13.4   Synchroscopes
    I. Electro-dynamometer (Weston) Type Synchroscope
    II. Moving Iron Synchroscopes.
    III. Phase Sequence Indicators.
       
14.     Measurement of Resistance
  14.1   Introduction
      Classification of Resistances
      Measurement of Medium Resistances
      Ammeter Voltmeter Method
      Substitution Method
      Wheatstone Bridge
      Sensitivity of Wheatstone Bridge
      Precision Measurement of Medium Resistances with Wheatstone Bridge
      Carey-Foster Slide-wire Bridge
      Kelvin Varley Slide
      Limitations of Wheatstone Bridge
      Measurement of Low Resistance
      Methods for Measurement of Low Resistance
      Kelvin's Double Bridge
      Kelvin Bridge Ohmmeter
      Unbalanced Kelvin's Bridge
      Measurement of High Resistance
      Difficulties in Measurement of High Resistances
      Use of Guard Circuit Methods for Measurement of High Resistance
      Direct Deflection Method
      Measurment of Volume and Surface Resistivities
      Loss of Charge method
      Megohm Bridge Method
      Measurement of Earth Resistance
      Methods of Measuring Earth Resistance
      Localization of Cable Faults
      Methods used for Localization Ground and Short Circuit Faults
      Murrey Loop Test
      Varley Loop Test
       
15.      Potentiometers
  15.1   D.C. Potentiometers-Basic Potentiometer Circuit
  15.2   Laboratory Type (Crompton's) Potentiometers
  15.3   Multiple Range Potentiometers
  15.4   Constructional Details of Potentiometers
  15.5   Precision Type Potentiometers
  15.6   Vernier Potentiometer
  15.7   Standard Cell and Galvanometer
  15.8   Self Balancing Potentiometers
  15.9   A.C. Potentiometer
  15.10   Standardizing of A.C Potentiometers and Use of Transfer Instruments
  15.11   Types of A.C Potentiometers
  15.12   Drysdale Polar Potentiometers
  15.13   Gall Tinsley (Co-ordinate Type) A.C Potentiometers
  15.14   Quadrature Adjustments of Currents
  15.15   Applications of A.C Potentiometers
       
       
16.      A.C Bridges
  16.1   Introduction
  16.2   Sources and Detectors
  16.3   General Equation for Bridge Balance
  16.4   General form of an A.C Bridge
  16.5   Measurement of Self Inductance
  16.6   Maxwell's Induction Bridge
  16.7   Anderson's Bridge
  16.8   Maxwell's Inductance
  16.9   Capacitance Bridge
  16.10   Hey's Bridge
  16.11   Anderson's Bridge
  16.12   Owen's Bridge
  16.13   Measurement of Incremental Inductance
  16.14   Measurement of Capacitance
  16.15   De Sauty's Bridge
  16.16   Schering Bridge
  16.17   High Voltage Schering Bridge,
  16.18   Measurement of Relaive Permittivity with Schering Bridge
  16.19   Measurement of Mutual Inductance
  16.20   Use of Mutual Inductance in Bridge Circuits
  16.21   Mutual inductance Measured as Self Inductance
  16.22   Heaviside Mutual Inductance Bridge
  16.23   Campbell's Modification of Heaviside Bridge
  16.24   Heviside Campbell Equal Ratio Bridge
  16.25   Carey Foster Bridge
  16.26   Heydweiller Bridge
  16.27   Campbell's Bridge
  16.28   Measurement of Frequency
  16.29   Wien's Bridge
  16.30   Universal Impedance Bridge
  16.31   Souces of Errors in Bridge Circuits
  16.32   Precautions and Techniques used for Reducing Errors
  16.33   Wagner Earting Device
  16.34   Transformer Ratio Bridges
  16.35   Applications and Features of Ratio Transformer
  16.36   Measurement of Resistance Measurement of Capacitance
  16.37   Measurement of Phase Angle
  16.38   Transformer Double Ratio Bridges
  16.39   Measurement of Inductance
  16.40   Measurements of Components in SITU
       
17.     High Voltage Measurements and Testing
  17.1   Types of Tests.
  17.2   Testing Apparatus
      High Voltage Transformers
      Voltage Control
      Voltage Control by Variation of Alternator Field Current
      Voltage Control by Resistance Potential Divider
      Reactance Voltage Control
      Voltage Control by tapped TransfofBier
      Voltage Control by Variac
      Voltage Control by Induction Regulators
      Control Gear and Protective Devices
  17.3   Equipment for Voltage Measurement
  17.4   Measurement of R.M.S. Values of Voltage
  17.5   Measurement of Peak Values of Voltages
  17.6   Measurement of D.C. Voltages
  17.8   Measurement of Instantaneous Voltage
  17.9   Low Frequency H.V. Tests
  17.10   High Voltage D.C. Testing
  17.12   Cock-^Craft Walton Circuit
  17.13   High Voltage D.C. Testing of Cables
      Equivalence of D.C. and A.C. Test Voltages
      Localization of Faults in High Voltage Cables
  17.14   High Frequency High Voltage Tests.
  17.15   Surge (Impluse) Testing
      Basic Impluse Generator Circuit
  17.16   Single Stage Impluse Generators
      Multi-stage Impulse Generator
      Impulse Testing of Transformers
  17.17   Testing of Insulating Materials
  17.18   High Voltage Testing of Cables
  17.19   High Voltage Tests on Porcelain Insulators
  17.20   Testing of Electric Strength of Insulating Oils
       
18.     Magnetic Measurements
  18.1   Introduction
  18.2   Types of Tests.
  18.3   Ballistic Tests
      Measurement of Flux Density
      Measurement of Value of Magnetising Force (H)
      Magnetic Potentiometer
      Testing of Ring Specimens
      Determination of B-H Curve
      Determination of Hysteresis Loop
      Testing of Bar Specimens
  18.4   Permeameters
      Hopkinson Permeameter (Bar and Yoke method)
      Ewing Double Bar Permeameter
      Illiovici Permeameter
      Burrows Permeameter
      Fahy's simplex Permeameter
  18.5   The National Physical Laboratory (England) form of Permeameter
      Measurement of Leakage Factor with Flux Meter
  18.6   Alternating Current Magnetic Testing
      Iron Loss Curves, Separation of Iron Losses.
  18.7   Methods of Iron Loss Measurement
      Wattmeter Method
      Bridge Methods
      A.C. Potentiometer Methods
      Oscillographic Method
  18.8   Methods of Measurements of Air Gap Flux.
  18.9   Testing of Permanent Magnets.
       
19.     Optoelectronic Measurements
  19.1   Introduction
  19.2   Optical Spectrum
      International Luminosity Curve
      Spectral Response
      Optical Transducers
  19.3   Monochromatic Light.
  19.4   Polarized Wave Shapes.
  19.5   Refraction "and Refractive Index.
  19.6   Reflection, Absorbtion an& Transmittance. Radiometry and Photometry.
  19.7   Terms Relating to Photometry.
  19.8   Laws of Illumination.
  19.9   Terms Relating to Radiometery.
  19.10   Photometric/Radiometric measurement Systems.
  19.11   Optical sources
      M.. Optical Detectors
      Optical Transducers
      Photo Emissive Cells
      Photoconductive cells
      Photo Diodes
      Photo Transistors
      Photovoltaic Cells
  19.12   Thermal Sensors
  19.13   Light Modulating Techniques
      Light Attenuation
      Light Suppression
      Photometric Filtering
      Radiometric Filters
      Photometer Heads
      Distribution of Luminous Intensity
      Determination of Mean Horizontal Luminous Intensity and Polar Curve
      Determination of Mean Spherical Luminous Intensity
  19.14    Modem Measurement Techniques.
  19.15   Radiometer/Photometer Accessory Equipment Fiber Optics
      Optical Fibers
      Principle of Optical Fibers
      Acceptance Angle ' and Numerical Aperture
      Factors Affecting the Propagation of Light through Optical Sensors
      Fiber Optic sensors
      Advantages of Fiber Optic Sensors
       
20.     Electronic Instruments
  20.1   Introduction.
  20.2   Electronic Voltmeters
    I. Advantages of Electronic Voltmeters
    II. Vacuum Type Voltmeters (VTVMs)
    III. Average Reading Diode Vacuum Tube Voltmeters
    IV. Peak Reading Diode Vacuum Tube Voltmeters
  20.3   Differential Amplifier.
  20.4   Difference Amplifier Type of Electronic Voltmeter.
  20.5   Source Follower Type of Electronic Voltmeter.
  20.6   D.C. Voltmeter with Direct Coupled Amplifier.
  20.7   Chopper Stablfeed Amplifiers
      Chopper Amplifier Type Voltmeter using Photodiodes
  20.8   Electronic Voltmeters using Rectifiers
  20.9   True RMS Reading Voltmeters
  20.10   Electronic MaUimeters
      Electronic Ohmmeter
  20.11   Considerations in selecting an Analog Voltmeter
  20.12   Differential Voltmeter.
  20.13   Vector Voltmeter.
  20.14   A.C. Voltage Measurements.
  20.15   Current Measurements usmgElectronic Instruments
  20.16   D.C. & A.C. current Measurements.
  20.17   Diode Sensor based Instruments.
  20.18   Measurement of Power at Radio Frequency (R.F.)
  20.19   Voltmeter based Instruments
  20.20   Calorimeter Power meter
  20.21   Bolometers
       
21.     Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
  21.1   Introduction.
  21.2   Cathode Ray.Tube (CRT).
  21.3   Electron Gun.
  21.4   Electrostatic Focusing.
  21.5   Electrostatic Deflection.
  21.6   Post Deflection Acceleration of Electron BeamJEffeet of Beam Transit Time and Frequency Limitations.
  21.7   Deflection Plates.
  21.8   Screens for CRTs.
  21.9   Graticule.
  21.10   Aquadage.
  21.11   Colour CRT Displays.
  21.12   Time Base Generators.
  21.13   Oscilloscope Amplifiers—Vertical Amplifier
  21.14   Horizontal Amplifier.
  21.15   Vertical Input and Sweep Generator
      Signal Synchronization
  21.16   Attenuators.
  21.17   Basic CRO circuits.
  21.18   Observation of Wayefonn on CRO.
  21.19   Measurement of Voltages and Currents Measurementso} Phase and Frequency (Lissajous Pattern   Oscilloscopes, Dual trace Oscilloscopes, Dual beam Oscilloscopes.
  21.20   Sampling QsdJBoscope.
  21.21   Analog Storage Oscilloscope
      Prinicple of Secondary Emission
      Variable persistance storage
      Fast Storage OsciUoscope
  21.22   Digital Storage Oscilloscope
      Principle of operation
      Waveform Reconstruction
  21.23   Cujiparison between analog and digital
  21.24   storage Oscilloscopes.
  21.25   Accessories of Cathode Ray Ocilloscopes.
  21.26   Calibrators.
  21.27   Probes.
  21.28   Cameras.
  21.29   Electronic Switch
       
22.     Instruments for Generation and Analysis of Waveform
  22.1   Signal Sources.
  22.2   Oscillators.
  22.3   Classification of Oscillators.
  22.4   Feedback Oscillators
      Types of Feedback Oscillators
      RCXiscillators
      Wien Bridge Oscillator
      Practical Circuit of Wien Bridge Oscillator
  22.5   Phase Shift Oscillator.
  22.6   L.C. Oscillators
      Armstrong Oscillator
      Hartley Oscillator
      Colpitis OscWator
  22.7   Crystal Oscillators
      Beat Frequency Oscillator
      Negative
      Resistance Oscillators
  22.8   Square-Wave and Pulse Generators
  22.9   Pulse Characteristics and Terminology
  22.10   Pulse and Square Wave Circuits.
  22.11   Pulse Shaping Circuit, B locking Oscillator, Multivibrators
  22.12   Laboratory Square-Wave and Pulse Generators
  22.13   Pulse Generator Circuit
  22.14   Triangular Waveshape Generator
  22.15   Function Generator
  22.16   Signal Generator
  22.17   Instruments  
    I. Signal Generators
    II. Swept Frequency Generator
    III. Sweeper Errors
    IV. Random Noise Generators
    V. Frequency Synthesizer
    VI. Programmable Frequency Synthesizer
       
23.     Signal Analysers
  23.1   Introduction
  23.2   Wave Analysers
    I. Frequency Selective Wave Analyser
    II. Heterodyne Wave Analyser
    III. Applications of Wave Analysers
  23.3   Harmonic Distortion Analysers
    I. Total Harmonic Distortion
    II. Intermodulation distortion
    III. Transient intermodulation distortion
  23.4   Spectrum analyzers
    I. B asic Spectrum analyzer
    II. Spectral Displays
    III. Spectra of Different -Signals
  23.5   Standing Wave Ratio
    I. Measurement of Standing Wave Ratio
       
24.     High Frequency Measurements
  24.1   Introduction
  24.2   Resonance Methods
  24.3   Measurement of Inductance
  24.4   Measurement of Capacitance
  24.5   Measurement of Effective Resistance
  24.6   Resistance Variation Method
  24.7   Reactance Variation Method T Networks
  24.8   Parallel T Network
  24.9   Bridge T Network
  24.10   Q Meter
       

 

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