Electrical and Electronics Measurements

1.			Measurements and Measurement Systems
	1.1		Measurements
	1.2		Significance of Measurements
	1.3		Method of Measurements
		1.3.1	Direct Methods
		1.3.2	Indirect Methods
	1.4		Instruments and measurement Systems
	1.5		Mechanical, Electrical and Electronic Instruments
		1.5.1	Mechanical Instruments
		1.5.2	Electrical Instruments
		1.5.3	Electronic Instruments
	1.6		Classification of Instruments
		1.6.1	Absolute Instruments
		1.6.2	Secondary Instruments
	1.7		Deflection and Null Type Instruments
		1.7.1	Deflection Type
		1.7.2	Null Type
		1.7.3	Comparison of Deflection and Null Type Instruments
	1.8		Analog and Digital Modes of Operation
	1.9		Functions of Instruments and Measurement Systems
	1.10		Applications of Measurement Systems
		1.10.1	Monitoring of Processes and Operations
		1.10.2	Control of Processes and Operations
		1.10.2	Experimental Engineering Analysis
	1.11		Types of Instrumentation Systems
		1.11.1	Intelligent Instrumentation Systems
		1.11.2	Dump Instrumentation Systems
	1.12		Information and Signal Processing
	1.13		Elements of a Generalized Measurement System
		1.13.1	Primary Sensing Element
		1.13.2	Variable Conversion Element
		1.13.3	Variable Manipulation Element
		1.13.4	Data Presentation Element
	1.14		Input-Output Configurations of Measuring lnstruments and Measurement Systems
		1.14.1	Desired Inputs
		1.14.2	Interfering Inputs
		1.14.3	Modifying Inputs
	1.15		Methods of Correction for Interfering and Modifying Inputs.
		1.15.1	Method of inherent insensitivity
		1.15.2	Method of high gain Feedback.
		1.15.3	Method of calculated output corrections
		1.15.4	Method of Signal Filtering
		1.15.5	Method of Opposing Inputs

2.			Characteristics of Instruments and Measurement Systems
	2.1		Measurement System Performance
		2.1.1	Static characteristics
		2.1.2	Dynamic characteristics
	2.2		Static Calibration
	2.3		Static Characteristics
	2.4		Errors in Measurements
	2.5		True Value
	2.6		Static Error
	2.7		Static Correction
	2.8		Scale Range and Scale Span
	2.9		Error Calibration Curve
	2.10		Reproducibility and Drifit Reproducibility
		2.10.1	Zero Drift
		2.10.2	Span Drift or Sensitivity
		2.10.3	Zonal Drift
	2.11		Repeatability
	2.12		Noise
		2.12.1	Signal to Noise Ratio (S/N)
		2.12.2	Sources of Noise
		2.12.3	Johonson Noise
		2.12.4	Power Spectrum Density
		2.12.5	Noise Factor and Noise Figure
	2.13		Accuracy and Precision
		2.13.1	Point Accuracy
		2.13.2	Accuracy as "Percentage of Scale Range"
		2.13.3	Accuracy as "Percentage of True Value"
		2.13.4	Precision
	2.14		Indications of Precision
		2.14.1	Conformity
		2.14.2	Significant Figures
	2.15		Range of Doubt or Possible Errors and Doubtful Figures
	2.16		Static Sensitivity
	2.17		Linearity
	2.18		Hysteresis
	2.19		Threshold
	2.20		Dead Time
	2.21		Dead Zone
	2.22		Resolution or discrimination
	2.23		Loading Effects
	2.24		Input and Output Impedances
		2.24.1	Input impedance
		2.24.2	Input admittance
		2.24.3	Output impedance
		2.24.4	Output admittance
	2.25		Loading Effects due to Shunt connected Instruments
	2.26		Loading Effects due to Series connected Instruments
	2.27		Generalised Impedance and Stiffness Concepts
		2.27.1	Through Variables
		2.27.2	Across Variables
	2.28		Static Stiffness and Static Compliance
	2.29		Impedance Matching and Maximum Power Transfer

3.			Errors in Measurements and Their Statistical Analysis
	3,1		Limiting Errors (Guarantee Errors)
	3.2		Relative (Fractional) Limiting Error
	3.3		Combination of Quantities with Limiting Errors
		3.3.1	Sum of two quantities
		3.3.2	Difference of two quantities
		3.3.3	Sum of Difference of more than two quantities
		3.3.4	Product of two Components
		3.3.5	Quoient
		3.3.6	Product or quotient of more than two quantities
		3.3.7	Power of a factor
		3.3.8	Composite Factors
	3.4		Known Errors
	3.5		Types of Errors
		3.5.1	Gross Errors
		3.5.2	Systematic Errors
		3.5.3	Instrumental Errors
		3.5.4	Environmental Errors
		3.5.5	Observational Errors
		3.5.6	Random (Residual) Errors
	3.6		Central Value
	3.7		Statistical Treatment of Data
		3.7.1	Multisample Test
		3.7.2	Single Sample Test
		3.7.3	Histogram
		3.7.4	Arithmetic Mean
		3.7.5	Measure of Dispersion from the Mean
		3.7.6	Range
		3.7.7	Deviation
		3.7.8	Average Deviation
		3.7.9	Standard Deviation (S.D.)
		3.7.10	Variance
		3.7.11	Normal or Gaussian Curve of Errors
		3.7.12	Precision Index
		3.7.13	Probable Error
		3.7.14	Average Deviation for the Normal Curve
		3.7.15	Standard Deviation for the Normal Curve
		3.7.16	Probable Error of a Finite Number of Readings
		3.7.17	Standard Deviation of Mean
		3.7.18	Standard Deviation of standard Deviation
	3.8		Probability Tables
	3.9		Specifying Odds
	3.10		Specifying Measurement Data
	3.11		Confidence Interval and Confidence level
	3.12		Rejection of Data
		3.12.1	Chauvenet's Criterion
		3.12.2	Rejection of Data based upon Confidence Intervals
		3.12.3	Rejection of Data based upon ± 3σ Limits
	3.13		Method of Least Squares
	3.14		Variance and Standard Deviations of Combination of Components
		3.14.1	Probable Error of Combination of Components
	3.15		Uncertainty Analysis and Treatment of Single Sample Data
		3.15.1	Propagation of Uncertainties

4.			Dynamic Characteristics of Instruments and Measurement Systems
	4.1		Dynamic Response
		4.1.1	Speed of Response
		4.1.2	Measuring Lag
		4.1.3	Fidelity
		4.1.4	Dynamic error
	4.2		Dynamic Analysis of Measurement Systems
		4.2.1	Time Domain Analysis
		4.2.2	Frequency Domain Analysis
	4.3		Mathematical Models of Measurement Systems
	4.4		Linear and Non-Linear System
		4.4.1	Linear Time Invariant System
		4.4.2	Linear Time variant System
	4.5		Analysis of Linear Systems
	4.6		Linear Approximaion of Non linear Systems
	4.7		Electric Networks
	4.8		Mechanical Systems
		4.8.1	Mechanical Translational Systems
		4.8.2	Mechanical Rotational Systems
	4.9		Force-voltage and Force-current Analogies
	4.10		Thermal Systems
	4.11		Liquid Level Systems
	4.12		Pneumatic Systems
	4.13		Transfer function
	4.14		Block Diagram Representation
	4.15		Impulse Response of a Linear System
	4.16		Sinusoidal Transfer Function
	4.17		Time Domain Response
	4.18		Zero Order Systems
	4.19		First Order Electrical Systems
	4.20		First Order Non-Electrical Systems
		4.20.1	Thermal System
		4.20.2	Liquid Level systems
	4.21		Differential Equation for a General First Order System
	4.22		Response of a First Order System to a Unit Step Input
	4.23		Modelling of a Thermometer
	4.24		Ramp Response of a First Order Systems
	4.25		Impulse Response of a First Order Systems
	4.26		Response of Second Order Systems
		4.26.1	Overdamped Systems
		4.26.2	Critically damped Systems
		4.26.3	Underdamped Systems
	4.27		Step Response of a Second Order System
		4.27.1	Overdamped Systems
		4.27.2	Critically damped Systems
		4.27.3	Underdamped Systems
	4.28		Time Domain Specifications
	4.29		Ramp Response of a Second Order Systems
	4.30		Impulse Response of a Second Order Systems
	4.31		Frequency Domain Analysis
	4.32		Frequency Response of a First Order Systems
	4.33		Frequency Response of a Second Order Systems
		4.33.1	Resonant Frequency
		4.33.2	Resonant Peak
		4.33.3	Bandwidth
		4.33.4	Frequency Response Curves
	4.34		Dead-Time Elements
	4.35		Correlationship between Time and Frequency Response of Second Order Systems

5.			Units, Systems, Dimentions and Standards
	5.1		Introduction
	5.2		Unit
		5.2.1	Absolute Units
		5.2.2	Fundamental and Derived Units
	5.3		Dimensions
	5.4		Dimensions of Mechanical Quantities
	5.5		CGS System of Units
		5.5.1	Electromagnetic Units (e.m. units)
		5.5.2	Electrostatic Units (e.s. units)
	5.6		Practical Units
	5.7		Dimensional Equations
		5.7.1	Dimensions in Electrostatic System
		5.7.2	Dimensions in Electromagnetic System
	5.8		Relationship between Electrostatic and Electromagnetic Systems of Units
	5.9		M.K.S. System
	5.10		Rationalised M.K.S.A. System
	5.11		SI Units
		5.11.1	Base Units of SI
	5.12		Supplementary Units
	5.13		Multiplying Prefixes of Units
	5.14		Determination of Absolute Units
	5.15		Absolute Measurement of Current
		5.15.1	Rayleigh's Current Balance
	5.16		Absolute Measurement of Resistance
		5.16.1	Lorenz Method
	5.17		Standards and Their Classification
		5.17.1	International Standards
		5.17.2	Primary Standards
		5.17.3	Secondary Standards
		5.17.4	Working Standards
	5.18		Standards for Mass and Length
	5.19		Atomic Frequency and Time Standards
		5.19.1	Caesium Beam Standard
		5.19.2	Hydrogen Maser Standard
		5.19.3	Rebidium Vapour Standard
		5.19.4	Quartz Crystal Standard
	5.18		Temperature Standards
	5.19		Luminous Intensity Standards
	5.20		Electrical Standards
	5.21		Emf Standards
		5.21.1	Primary Standard of Emf
		5.21.2	Secondary Standard of Emf
		5.21.3	Laboratory Standards of Emf
		5.21.4	Josephon-Effect Standard
	5.22		Resistance Standards
	5.23		Current Standards
	5.24		Inductance Standards
	5.25		Capacitance Standards

6.			Circuit Components ( Resistors, Inductors and Capacitors and their Residues)
	61		Residues
	6.2		Resistors
		6.2.1	Materials used for Resistors
		6.2.2	Spools (Formers) for Resistance Coils
		6.2.3	Resistance Wires
		6.2.4	Resistance Standards
		6.2.5	Low Resistance Standards
		6.2.6	Steel Metal Resistors
		6.2.7	Frequency Errors in Resistors
		6.2.8	Methods of Reducing Residual Inductance and Capacitance in Resistors
		6.2.9	Shielded Resistors
	6.3		Standards for Inductance
		6.3.1	Formers for Inductance Coils
		6.3.2	Coils of Inductance Coils
		6.3.3	Standards of Mutual Inductance
		6.3.4	Variable Inductance
		6.3.5	Inductors for High Frequency Work
		6.3.6	Inductors for Low Frequency Work
		6.3.7	Frequency Errors in Inductors
	6.4		Loss Angle and Power Factor of Capacitors
	6.5		Capacitance Standards
		6.5.1	Vacuum and Gas-filled Capacitors
		6.5.2	Solid Dielectric Capacitors
		6.5.3	Variable Capacitors
		6.5.4	Decade Capacitance Boxes
		6.5.5	Frequency Errors in Capacitors

7.			Analog Instruments
	7.1		Analog Instruments
	7.2		Classification of Analog Instruments
		7.2.1	Indicating Instruments
		7.2.2	Recording Instruments
		7.2.3	Integrating Instruments
	7.3		Principles of Operation
		7.3.1	Magnetic Effect
		7.3.2	Thermal Effect
		7.3.3	Induction Effect
		7.3.4	Hall Effect
	7.4		Electromechanical Indicating Instruments
		7.4.1	Operating Forces
		7.4.2	Constructional Details
		7.4.3	Types of Supports
		7.4.4	Torque/Weight Ratio
		7.4.5	Control Systems
	7.5		Comparison between Spring and Gravity Control
	7.6		Damping Systems
		7.6.1	Air Friction Damping
		7.6.2	Fluid Friction Damping
		7.6.3	Eddy Current Damping
		7.6.4	Electromagnetic Damping
	7.7		Comparison of Methods of Damping
	7.8		Methods of Eddy Current Damping
		7.8.1	Eddy Current Damping Torque of Metal Former
		7.8.2	Damping Torque of a Metal Disc
	7.9		Permanent Magnets
	7.10		Pointers and Scales
	7.11		Symbols used for Analogue Instruments
		7.11.1	Nature of Measured Quantity and Number of Measuring Elements
		7.11.2	Safety
		7.11.3	Accuracy Class
		7.11.4	Principle of Operation
	7.12		Recording Instruments
	7.13		Integrating Instruments

8.			Galvanometers
	8.1		Introduction
	8.2		D'Arsonaval Galvanometer
	8.3		Construction of d'Arosnval Galvanometer
	8.4		Torque Equation
	8.5		Dynamic Behaviour of Galvanometers
		8.5.1	Equation of Motion
		8.5.2	Underdamped Motion of a Galvanometer
		8.5.3	Undamped Motion of a Galvanometer
		8.5.4	Critically Damped Motion of a Galvanometer
		8.5.5	Overdamped Motion of Galvenometer
	8.6		Response of Galvanometers
	8.7		Operational Constants
	8.8		Relative Damping
	8.9		Logarithmic Decrement
	8.10		Overshoot
	8.11		Non-dimensional Curves of a Galvanometer Motion
	8.12		Damping
		8.12.1	Mechanical Damping
		8.12.2	Electrical Damping
	8.13		Sensitivity
		8.13.1	Current Sensitivity
		8.13.2	Voltage Sensitivity
		8.13.3	Megohm Sensitivity
	8.14		Galvanometer Shunts
	8.15		Ayrton Universal Shunt
	8.16		Ballistic Galvanometer
		8.16.1	Construction of ballistic Galvanometers
		8.16.2	Theory of ballistic Galvanometer
		8.16.3	Calibration of a Balilistic Galvanometer
	8.17		Flux Meter
		8.17.1	Construction of flux meter
		8.17.2	Operation of flux meter
		8.17.3	Theory of Flux meter
		8.17.4	Use of Shunt with Flux meter
		8.17.5	Advantages and Disadvantages of flux meter
	8.18		Vibration Galvanometers
		8.18.1	Construction of Vibration Galvanometers
		8.18.2	Theory
	8.19		Duddell's Ocillograph
		8.19.1	Theory of Duddell's Oscillograph

9.			Analog Ammeters, Voltmeteres and Ohmmeters
	9.1		Introduction
	9.2		Types of Instruments
	9.3		Errors in Ammeters and Voltmeters
	9.4		Permanent Magnet Moving Coil Instruments (PMMC)
		9.4.1	Construction of PMMC Instruments
		9.4.2	Torque Equation
		9.4.3	Ammeter Shunts
		9.4.4	Effect of Temperature Changes in ammeters
		9.4.5	Multi-range Ammeters
		9.4.6	Voltmeter Multipliers
		9.4.7	Effect of Temperature Changes in Voltmeters
		9.4.8	Multi-range d.c. Voltmeters
		9.4.9	Sensitivity of PMMC Voltmeters and their Loding Effects
		9.4.10	Errors in PMMC Instruments
		9.4.11	Advantages and Disadvantages of PMMC Instruments
	9.5		Ohmmeters
		9.5.1	Series-type Ohmmeter
		9.5.2	Shunt type Ohmmeters
	9.6		Multimeter or Volt-Ohm-Milli-ammeter (V.O.M.)
	9.7		Ratio meter
		9.7.1	Ratio meter Ohmeters
	9.8		Megger
	9.9		Moving Iron Instruments
		9.9.1	General Torque Equation of Moving Iron Instruments
		9.9.2	Classification of Moving Iron Instruments
		9.9.3	Shape of Scale of Moving Iron Instruments
		9.9.4	Shunt for Moving Iron Instruments
		9.9.5	Multipliers for Moving Iron Instruments
		9.9.6	Comparison between Attraction and Repulsion Types of Instruments
		9.9.7	Errors in Moving Iron Instruments
		9.9.8	Advantages and Disadvantages of Moving Iron Instruments
	9.10		Electrodynamometer ( Electrodynamic) Type Instruments
		9.10.1	Operating principle of Electrodynamometer Type instruments
		9.10.2	Construction of Electrodynamometer Type instruments
		9.10.3	Torque equation of Electrodynamometer Type instruments
		9.10.4	Electrodynamometer Ammeters
		9.10.5	Electrodynamometer Voltmeters
		9.10.6	Errors in Electrodynamometer Instruments
		9.10.7	Shape of Scale Electrodynamometer Type instruments
		9.10.8	Advantages and Disadvantages of Electrodynamometer Type instruments
	9.11		Electrothermic Instruments
		9.11.1	Classification of Electrothermic Instruments.
	9.12		Hot Wire Instruments
	9.13		Thermocouple Instruments
		9.13.1	Principle of operation of Thermo-electric Instruments
		9.13.2	Construction of Thermo-electric Instruments
		9.13.3	Advantages and Disadvantages of Thermo-electric Instruments
	9.14		Electrostatic Instruments
		9.14.1	Force and Torque Equations of Electrostatic Instruments
		9.14.2	Quadrant Electrometer
		9.14.3	Kelvin Multicellular Voltmeter
		9.14.4	Attraction Type Portable Electrostatic Instruments
		9.14.5	Attracted Disc Type Portable Kelvin Absolute Electrometer
		9.14.6	Extension of Range of Electrostatic Voltmeters
		9.14.7	Advantages and Disadvantages of electrostatic instruments
	9.15		Rectifier Type Instruments
		9.15.1	Rectifier Elements
		9.15.2	Characteristics of rectifier elements
		9.15.3	Half wave Rectifier Circuit
		9.15.4	Full wave rectifier circuit
		9.15.5	Sensitivity of Rectifier Type Instruments
		9.15.6	Extension of Range of Rectifier Instruments as Voltmeters
		9.15.7	Factors Affecting the Performance Rectifier Type Instruments
		9.15.8	Multimeters
		9.15.9	Simpson's Multimeter
		9.15.10	Rectifier Ammeters
		9.15.11	Advantages of Rectifier Instruments
		9.15.12	Loading Effects of Rectifier Instruments
	9.16		Summary and Classification of Alternating and Direct Current Meters

10.			Instrument Transformers
	10.1		Introduction
	10.2		Use of Instrument Transformers
	10.3		Ratios of Instrument Transformers
	10.4		Burden of a Instruments Transformer
	10.5		Current Transformers
		10.5.1	Relationships in a Current Transformers
		10.5.2	Errors in Current Transformers
		10.5.3	Characteristics of Current Transformers
		10.5.4	Causes of Errors in Current Transformers
		10.5.5	Reduction of Errors in Current Transformers
		10.5.6	Construction of Current Transformers
		10.5.7	Clamp on Ammeters
		10.5.8	Effect of Secondary Open Circuit
		10.5.9	Permanent Magnetization and Demagnetization of Cores of Current Transformers
	10.6		Potential Transformers
		10.6.1	Difference between C.T. and P.T.
		10.6.2	Relationship in Potential Transformers
		10.6.3	Reduction of Errors in Potential Transformer
		10.6.4	High Voltage Potential Transformers
		10.6.5	Protection of Potential Transformers
		10.6.6	Capacitive Potential Transformers
		10.6.7	Characteristics of Potential Transformers
	10.7		Testing of Instrument Transformers
	10.8		Testing of Current Transformers
	10.9		Testing of Potential Transformers

11.			Measurement of Power and Wattmeters
	11.1		Power in D.C. Circuits
	11.2		Power in A.C. circuits
	11.3		Electrodynamometer Wattmeters
		11.3.1	Construction of Electrodynamometer Wattmeters
		11.3.2	Theory of Electrodynamometer Wattmeters
		11.3.3	Shape of Scale of Electrodynamometer Wattmeters
		11.3.4	Error in Electrodynamometer Wattmeters
	11.4		Ferrodynamic Wattmeters.
	11.5		Lower Factor Wattmeters (Electrodynamometer type)
	11.6		Thermocouple Wattmeter (Thermal Watt Converter)
	11.7		Hall Effect Multiplier
	11.8		Measurement of Power Using Instrument Transformers
	11.9		Power In Poly-Phase Systems
	11.10		Measurement of Power in Three Phase Circuits
	11.11		Three Phase Wattmeters
	11.12		Measurement of Reactive Power

12.			Measurement of Energy and Industrial Metering
	12.1		Introduction
	12.2		General
	12.3		Motor Meters
	12.4		Braking
	12.5		Friction
	12.6		Energy Meters for A.C. Circuits
	12.7		Theory of Induction Type Meters
	12.8		Single Phase Induction Type Watt-hour Meters
			Construction
			Theory and Operation
			Lag Adjustment Devices
			Light Load or Friction Compensation
	12.9		Creep
			Over-Load Compensation, over Voltage Compensation
			Temperature Compensation
	12.10		Errors. Adjustments. Polyphase Energy Meters
	12.11		Two Element Energy Meter.
	12.12		Industrial Metering and Tariffs.
	12.13		Maximum Demand Indicators
	12.14		Average Demand Indicator.
	12.15		Measurement of VAh and VArh
	12.16		VArh Metering
	12.17		Measurement of VAh
	12.18		Testing of Energy Meters
	12.19		Types of Tests
	12.20		Loading, Meter Testing Circuits

13.			Measurement of Phase and Frequency
	13.1		Introduction
	13.2		Power Factor Meters
		I.	Single Phase Electrodynamometer Power Factor Meter
		II.	Three Phase Electrodynamometer Power Factor Meter
		III.	Moving Iron Power Factor Meters
		IV.	Advantages and Disadvantages of Moving Iron P.F. Meters
	13.3		Frequency Meters
		I.	Mechanical Resonance Type Frequency Meter (Vibrating Reed Type)
		II.	Electrical Reasonance Type Frequency Meters
		III.	Weston Type Frequency Meter
		IV.	Ratiometer Type Frequency Meter
		V.	Saturable Core Frequency Meter
	13.4		Synchroscopes
		I.	Electro-dynamometer (Weston) Type Synchroscope
		II.	Moving Iron Synchroscopes.
		III.	Phase Sequence Indicators.

14.			Measurement of Resistance
	14.1		Introduction
			Classification of Resistances
			Measurement of Medium Resistances
			Ammeter Voltmeter Method
			Substitution Method
			Wheatstone Bridge
			Sensitivity of Wheatstone Bridge
			Precision Measurement of Medium Resistances with Wheatstone Bridge
			Carey-Foster Slide-wire Bridge
			Kelvin Varley Slide
			Limitations of Wheatstone Bridge
			Measurement of Low Resistance
			Methods for Measurement of Low Resistance
			Kelvin's Double Bridge
			Kelvin Bridge Ohmmeter
			Unbalanced Kelvin's Bridge
			Measurement of High Resistance
			Difficulties in Measurement of High Resistances
			Use of Guard Circuit Methods for Measurement of High Resistance
			Direct Deflection Method
			Measurment of Volume and Surface Resistivities
			Loss of Charge method
			Megohm Bridge Method
			Measurement of Earth Resistance
			Methods of Measuring Earth Resistance
			Localization of Cable Faults
			Methods used for Localization Ground and Short Circuit Faults
			Murrey Loop Test
			Varley Loop Test

15.			Potentiometers
	15.1		D.C. Potentiometers-Basic Potentiometer Circuit
	15.2		Laboratory Type (Crompton's) Potentiometers
	15.3		Multiple Range Potentiometers
	15.4		Constructional Details of Potentiometers
	15.5		Precision Type Potentiometers
	15.6		Vernier Potentiometer
	15.7		Standard Cell and Galvanometer
	15.8		Self Balancing Potentiometers
	15.9		A.C. Potentiometer
	15.10		Standardizing of A.C Potentiometers and Use of Transfer Instruments
	15.11		Types of A.C Potentiometers
	15.12		Drysdale Polar Potentiometers
	15.13		Gall Tinsley (Co-ordinate Type) A.C Potentiometers
	15.14		Quadrature Adjustments of Currents
	15.15		Applications of A.C Potentiometers


16.			A.C Bridges
	16.1		Introduction
	16.2		Sources and Detectors
	16.3		General Equation for Bridge Balance
	16.4		General form of an A.C Bridge
	16.5		Measurement of Self Inductance
	16.6		Maxwell's Induction Bridge
	16.7		Anderson's Bridge
	16.8		Maxwell's Inductance
	16.9		Capacitance Bridge
	16.10		Hey's Bridge
	16.11		Anderson's Bridge
	16.12		Owen's Bridge
	16.13		Measurement of Incremental Inductance
	16.14		Measurement of Capacitance
	16.15		De Sauty's Bridge
	16.16		Schering Bridge
	16.17		High Voltage Schering Bridge,
	16.18		Measurement of Relaive Permittivity with Schering Bridge
	16.19		Measurement of Mutual Inductance
	16.20		Use of Mutual Inductance in Bridge Circuits
	16.21		Mutual inductance Measured as Self Inductance
	16.22		Heaviside Mutual Inductance Bridge
	16.23		Campbell's Modification of Heaviside Bridge
	16.24		Heviside Campbell Equal Ratio Bridge
	16.25		Carey Foster Bridge
	16.26		Heydweiller Bridge
	16.27		Campbell's Bridge
	16.28		Measurement of Frequency
	16.29		Wien's Bridge
	16.30		Universal Impedance Bridge
	16.31		Souces of Errors in Bridge Circuits
	16.32		Precautions and Techniques used for Reducing Errors
	16.33		Wagner Earting Device
	16.34		Transformer Ratio Bridges
	16.35		Applications and Features of Ratio Transformer
	16.36		Measurement of Resistance Measurement of Capacitance
	16.37		Measurement of Phase Angle
	16.38		Transformer Double Ratio Bridges
	16.39		Measurement of Inductance
	16.40		Measurements of Components in SITU

17.			High Voltage Measurements and Testing
	17.1		Types of Tests.
	17.2		Testing Apparatus
			High Voltage Transformers
			Voltage Control
			Voltage Control by Variation of Alternator Field Current
			Voltage Control by Resistance Potential Divider
			Reactance Voltage Control
			Voltage Control by tapped TransfofBier
			Voltage Control by Variac
			Voltage Control by Induction Regulators
			Control Gear and Protective Devices
	17.3		Equipment for Voltage Measurement
	17.4		Measurement of R.M.S. Values of Voltage
	17.5		Measurement of Peak Values of Voltages
	17.6		Measurement of D.C. Voltages
	17.8		Measurement of Instantaneous Voltage
	17.9		Low Frequency H.V. Tests
	17.10		High Voltage D.C. Testing
	17.12		Cock-^Craft Walton Circuit
	17.13		High Voltage D.C. Testing of Cables
			Equivalence of D.C. and A.C. Test Voltages
			Localization of Faults in High Voltage Cables
	17.14		High Frequency High Voltage Tests.
	17.15		Surge (Impluse) Testing
			Basic Impluse Generator Circuit
	17.16		Single Stage Impluse Generators
			Multi-stage Impulse Generator
			Impulse Testing of Transformers
	17.17		Testing of Insulating Materials
	17.18		High Voltage Testing of Cables
	17.19		High Voltage Tests on Porcelain Insulators
	17.20		Testing of Electric Strength of Insulating Oils

18.			Magnetic Measurements
	18.1		Introduction
	18.2		Types of Tests.
	18.3		Ballistic Tests
			Measurement of Flux Density
			Measurement of Value of Magnetising Force (H)
			Magnetic Potentiometer
			Testing of Ring Specimens
			Determination of B-H Curve
			Determination of Hysteresis Loop
			Testing of Bar Specimens
	18.4		Permeameters
			Hopkinson Permeameter (Bar and Yoke method)
			Ewing Double Bar Permeameter
			Illiovici Permeameter
			Burrows Permeameter
			Fahy's simplex Permeameter
	18.5		The National Physical Laboratory (England) form of Permeameter
			Measurement of Leakage Factor with Flux Meter
	18.6		Alternating Current Magnetic Testing
			Iron Loss Curves, Separation of Iron Losses.
	18.7		Methods of Iron Loss Measurement
			Wattmeter Method
			Bridge Methods
			A.C. Potentiometer Methods
			Oscillographic Method
	18.8		Methods of Measurements of Air Gap Flux.
	18.9		Testing of Permanent Magnets.

19.			Optoelectronic Measurements
	19.1		Introduction
	19.2		Optical Spectrum
			International Luminosity Curve
			Spectral Response
			Optical Transducers
	19.3		Monochromatic Light.
	19.4		Polarized Wave Shapes.
	19.5		Refraction "and Refractive Index.
	19.6		Reflection, Absorbtion an& Transmittance. Radiometry and Photometry.
	19.7		Terms Relating to Photometry.
	19.8		Laws of Illumination.
	19.9		Terms Relating to Radiometery.
	19.10		Photometric/Radiometric measurement Systems.
	19.11		Optical sources
			M.. Optical Detectors
			Optical Transducers
			Photo Emissive Cells
			Photoconductive cells
			Photo Diodes
			Photo Transistors
			Photovoltaic Cells
	19.12		Thermal Sensors
	19.13		Light Modulating Techniques
			Light Attenuation
			Light Suppression
			Photometric Filtering
			Radiometric Filters
			Photometer Heads
			Distribution of Luminous Intensity
			Determination of Mean Horizontal Luminous Intensity and Polar Curve
			Determination of Mean Spherical Luminous Intensity
	19.14		Modem Measurement Techniques.
	19.15		Radiometer/Photometer Accessory Equipment Fiber Optics
			Optical Fibers
			Principle of Optical Fibers
			Acceptance Angle ' and Numerical Aperture
			Factors Affecting the Propagation of Light through Optical Sensors
			Fiber Optic sensors
			Advantages of Fiber Optic Sensors

20.			Electronic Instruments
	20.1		Introduction.
	20.2		Electronic Voltmeters
		I.	Advantages of Electronic Voltmeters
		II.	Vacuum Type Voltmeters (VTVMs)
		III.	Average Reading Diode Vacuum Tube Voltmeters
		IV.	Peak Reading Diode Vacuum Tube Voltmeters
	20.3		Differential Amplifier.
	20.4		Difference Amplifier Type of Electronic Voltmeter.
	20.5		Source Follower Type of Electronic Voltmeter.
	20.6		D.C. Voltmeter with Direct Coupled Amplifier.
	20.7		Chopper Stablfeed Amplifiers
			Chopper Amplifier Type Voltmeter using Photodiodes
	20.8		Electronic Voltmeters using Rectifiers
	20.9		True RMS Reading Voltmeters
	20.10		Electronic MaUimeters
			Electronic Ohmmeter
	20.11		Considerations in selecting an Analog Voltmeter
	20.12		Differential Voltmeter.
	20.13		Vector Voltmeter.
	20.14		A.C. Voltage Measurements.
	20.15		Current Measurements usmgElectronic Instruments
	20.16		D.C. & A.C. current Measurements.
	20.17		Diode Sensor based Instruments.
	20.18		Measurement of Power at Radio Frequency (R.F.)
	20.19		Voltmeter based Instruments
	20.20		Calorimeter Power meter
	20.21		Bolometers

21.			Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
	21.1		Introduction.
	21.2		Cathode Ray.Tube (CRT).
	21.3		Electron Gun.
	21.4		Electrostatic Focusing.
	21.5		Electrostatic Deflection.
	21.6		Post Deflection Acceleration of Electron BeamJEffeet of Beam Transit Time and Frequency Limitations.
	21.7		Deflection Plates.
	21.8		Screens for CRTs.
	21.9		Graticule.
	21.10		Aquadage.
	21.11		Colour CRT Displays.
	21.12		Time Base Generators.
	21.13		Oscilloscope Amplifiers—Vertical Amplifier
	21.14		Horizontal Amplifier.
	21.15		Vertical Input and Sweep Generator
			Signal Synchronization
	21.16		Attenuators.
	21.17		Basic CRO circuits.
	21.18		Observation of Wayefonn on CRO.
	21.19		Measurement of Voltages and Currents Measurementso} Phase and Frequency (Lissajous Pattern Oscilloscopes, Dual trace Oscilloscopes, Dual beam Oscilloscopes.
	21.20		Sampling QsdJBoscope.
	21.21		Analog Storage Oscilloscope
			Prinicple of Secondary Emission
			Variable persistance storage
			Fast Storage OsciUoscope
	21.22		Digital Storage Oscilloscope
			Principle of operation
			Waveform Reconstruction
	21.23		Cujiparison between analog and digital
	21.24		storage Oscilloscopes.
	21.25		Accessories of Cathode Ray Ocilloscopes.
	21.26		Calibrators.
	21.27		Probes.
	21.28		Cameras.
	21.29		Electronic Switch

22.			Instruments for Generation and Analysis of Waveform
	22.1		Signal Sources.
	22.2		Oscillators.
	22.3		Classification of Oscillators.
	22.4		Feedback Oscillators
			Types of Feedback Oscillators
			RCXiscillators
			Wien Bridge Oscillator
			Practical Circuit of Wien Bridge Oscillator
	22.5		Phase Shift Oscillator.
	22.6		L.C. Oscillators
			Armstrong Oscillator
			Hartley Oscillator
			Colpitis OscWator
	22.7		Crystal Oscillators
			Beat Frequency Oscillator
			Negative
			Resistance Oscillators
	22.8		Square-Wave and Pulse Generators
	22.9		Pulse Characteristics and Terminology
	22.10		Pulse and Square Wave Circuits.
	22.11		Pulse Shaping Circuit, B locking Oscillator, Multivibrators
	22.12		Laboratory Square-Wave and Pulse Generators
	22.13		Pulse Generator Circuit
	22.14		Triangular Waveshape Generator
	22.15		Function Generator
	22.16		Signal Generator
	22.17		Instruments
		I.	Signal Generators
		II.	Swept Frequency Generator
		III.	Sweeper Errors
		IV.	Random Noise Generators
		V.	Frequency Synthesizer
		VI.	Programmable Frequency Synthesizer

23.			Signal Analysers
	23.1		Introduction
	23.2		Wave Analysers
		I.	Frequency Selective Wave Analyser
		II.	Heterodyne Wave Analyser
		III.	Applications of Wave Analysers
	23.3		Harmonic Distortion Analysers
		I.	Total Harmonic Distortion
		II.	Intermodulation distortion
		III.	Transient intermodulation distortion
	23.4		Spectrum analyzers
		I.	B asic Spectrum analyzer
		II.	Spectral Displays
		III.	Spectra of Different -Signals
	23.5		Standing Wave Ratio
		I.	Measurement of Standing Wave Ratio

24.			High Frequency Measurements
	24.1		Introduction
	24.2		Resonance Methods
	24.3		Measurement of Inductance
	24.4		Measurement of Capacitance
	24.5		Measurement of Effective Resistance
	24.6		Resistance Variation Method
	24.7		Reactance Variation Method T Networks
	24.8		Parallel T Network
	24.9		Bridge T Network
	24.10		Q Meter

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